Herbs as a Food and Medicine Source in Palestine
Introduction
Human being have used herbs as both as a food source and as medicine for at least several thousands years. Ancient Arabic medicine was influenced by medicinal practices in Persia, Mesopotamia, Greece and Rome, and India. The Greco-Roman system of medicine developed, based primarily on the writing of Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), Dioscorides (circa 54 to 68 AD) and Galen (130-201 AD) in Alexandria, Antioch, Edessa, Amida and Gundishapur which flourished as centers of scientific and medical activity (Mursi 1966; Savage-Smith 1996).
The Arab system grew out of the work of physicians who were contemporaries of the Prophet Muhammad (571- 632 AD), including al-Harith ibn Kalada and Ibn Abi Rimtha (Hawting 1989). The sayings (Hadith) of the Prophet on health and illness were systemized and became known as Medicine of the Prophet (al-Tibb al-Nabawi) (Hawting 1989; Savage-Smith 1996) and during the Umayyad rule (661-750) translations of ancient medical works began.
For over five centuries (750-1258), the Abbasids dominated the sociopolitical life of the greater part of the Muslim world and were generous in their promotion of knowledge and medicine. Countless manuscripts, particularly those written in Greek, were collected and stored in Bayt al-hikmah (house of wisdom, established in 830, by Caliph al-Ma’mun), where scholars labored at translating them into Arabic (Hitti 1952; Ullmann 1978). Within a century, Muslim physicians and scientists were writing original contributions to medical and botanical knowledge. One of the greatest and most famous Islamic doctors was Ibn Sina (Avicenna 980-1037), who compiled the “Canon of Medicine” (Kitab al-Qanun fi al-Tibb). Another leading Arabic philosopher-physicians was al-Razi (Rhazes 865-
923) who compiled the “Comprehensive Book on Medicine” (Kitab al-Hawi fi al-Tibb). It should be noted that Ibn Sina and al-Razi works were later translated into Latin, and continued to influence medical work up until the 18th and even the 19th century (Al-Said 1997; Johnstone 1998; Murad 1966; Al-Shatti 1970). The majority of physicians in the Andalus (Islamic Spain) were herbalists . Physicians such as Ibn al-Baytar (1197-1248) whose work “Compendium of Simple Drugs and Food” (al-jami’ li-mufradat al-adwiya wa’l-aghdhiya), described more than 1400 medicinal drugs, including 300 not previously covered by others. Other well- known physicians who also wrote on plant uses were: Ibn Juljul, al-Ghafiqi, Ibn Bajjah, Ibn Samajun, and Abu al- Hassan al-Andalusi (Al-Najjar 1994; Johnstone 1998). This medical tradition was molded in the 10th century, developed in the 11th and 12th centuries and reached its peak in the 13- 16th centuries, and later declined in the 17-19th centuries (Hamarneh 1991; Lev 2002). Medical literature and healing methods that had been at the focus of traditional medicine for over a thousand years, were marginalized by the advent of western medicine in the 19th and 20th centuries, becoming the exclusive domain of traditional medicine and folk healers (Lev 2002; Lev and Amar 2000).
However, the use of traditional medicine in the 20th century, particularly herbal medicine, was widespread throughout the Middle East, including Palestine (Ali- Shtayeh, Yaniv and Mahajna 2000; Bailey and Danin 1981; Palevitch and Yaniv 2000). Most of the herbs were used both as food and as medicine (Abu-Rabia 1999; Canaan 1927; Granqvist 1947; Krispil 1986; Pillsbury 1978; Tal 1981). Wild leafy vegetables consumed by people generally had higher nutritional values than cultivated vegetables grown in their gardens (Booth et al 1992). Wild herb foods often show higher values and more inter-specific variation
Department of Middle East Studies, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105 Israel Tel: 972-8-6472540 Fax: 972-8- 6472952 Email: aref@bgu.ac.il
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in their content of minerals than do cultivated herbs. Nutritional anthropologists are interested in monitoring what we eat; how we eat and why we eat what we eat. The considerable variation in dietary habits from culture to culture is widely accepted as a factor underlying differences in cancer incidences in different populations around the globe (World Cancer Research/American Association for Cancer Research 1997). The even much wider variation existing among different countries regarding intake of food – particularly consumption of herbs and vegetables, may provide revealing clues to modification potential (Moore and Tajima 2004). A comparative study between Arab and Jews in Israel reveals that the striking differences between the prevalence of cancer are, in fact, the result of different dietary patterns, which may include nutritional factors that serve as cancer-inducing or cancer-protective mechanisms.
Olive oil is the predominant oil (79%) used in Arab culture and one study suggested that olives have some protective effect against cancer (Bitterman et al 1991). In Italy, Buiatti et al (1989, 1990) found an inverse relation between gastric cancer and olive oil consumption; they suggest that vitamin E might contribute to this ‘protective impact’ and it should be noted that olive oil is composed of 73% oleic acid, 11% linoleic acid, 12% palmitoleic acid, and 1% other polyunsaturated fatty acids (Passmore & Eastwood 1986). Groen et al (1964) found among the semi- nomadic Bedouin tribes in the Negev desert that their diet consists of olive oil and bread-flour of wheat and little fat – a diet characterized by a very high percentage of carbohydrate calories, a low percentage of fat calories, and an adequate amount of linolenic and linoleic acid. Ben-Assa (1964) found that diabetes and heart disease were rare among the Bedouin during the 1960s. One of the favored condiments/flavoring among Arabs is Marjoram (Origanum- mardagush) with olive oil (Abu-Rabia 1999; Krispil 1986). In Turkey, Marjoram has been found to have potential benefit, with anti-cancer/anti-carcinoma (breast, colon, lung, pancreas, prostate) effects (Esiyok et al., 2004).
Methodology
The data for this paper are derived from a broader study of ethno-botany and folk medicine in Palestine over two decades. The paper is based on interviews with healers and patients. All the material was recorded in field logs, and some was tape recorded. Plant samples were collected and identified by healers, tribal elders, and university botanists. The samples were identified and classified according to the plant seeds, leaves, fruit, taste, color and shape.
Plants for Food and Medicine
Allium cepa L.: [Family: Liliaceae]
Arabic: Basal English: Onion
Properties and uses: antiseptic, aphrodisiac, appetizer, carminative, digestive, diuretic. Fresh green leaves are eaten as salad or with other food. Eating leaves and bulbs is
believed to treat genitourinary infections and prevent cancer. Increase sexual desire. Bulbs treat open wounds.
Allium sativum: [Family: Liliaceae]
Arabic: Thum English: Garlic.
Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac, carminative, diuretic. Fresh green leaves to be eaten with salad or with other food. Bulbs are believed useful for treating kidneys infections, intestinal worms, ulcer, piles, genitourinary infections, and prostate. Treat tumor and skin cancer.
Amaranthus retroflexus L. [Family: Amaranthaceae] Arabic: Urf al-Dik English: Amaranth
Properties and Uses: astringent, emmenagogue. Leave are used to treat venereal diseases, to ease the pains during the menstruation period, and to stimulate menstrual flow; increase production of breast milk; and treat skin diseases, bloody diarrhea, dysentery and mouth infections.
Ammi visnaga L. [Family: Umbelliferae]
Arabic: Khillah, Khall English: Toothpick plant Properties and Uses: diuretic, carminative, tonic, digestive, stomachic. Seeds are used to treat asthma, skin diseases - leucoderma, tumor and psoriasis; used as toothpicks and to treat mouth infections; urinary retention, prostate and swollen testicles. Vinegar (khall) is added to the food to relieve digestive problems.
Anchusa strigosa Banks et Sol. [Family: Boraginaceae] Arabic: Ihmim, Hemhem, Lisan al-Thawr. English: Bugloss, Ox Tongue.
Properties and Uses: diuretic, demulcent, diaphoretic. Leaves and roots treat bloody diarrhea, dysentery, fever, joints, muscles, rheumatism, skin tumors, sinusitis, varicose veins. The blue flowers have a sweet taste, and are therefore eaten or sucked.
Avena sterilis [Family: Gramineae]
Arabic: Shufan, Khafur English: Oats
Properties and Uses: Nutrient, sedative, stimulant, tonic. Crushed grains and straw is used to increase production of breast milk and to strengthen women after childbirth; treat genitourinary tract infections, and prostate; treat abdominal disorders; diabetes; fractures and wounds; and rheumatism. Increase sexual desire. Treat skin diseases, tumors and cancer.
Capparis spinosa L. [Family: Capparaceae]
Arabic: Qubbar, Lassaf. English: Caper.
Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, condiment, diuretic. Leaves, stems and fruit are used to treat sterility ; to increase sexual desires, to increase menstrual flow; treat open wounds, mouth infections.
Carum carvi L.[Family: Umbelliferae]
Arabic: Karawiya English: Caraway
Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac, digestive, emmenagogue, galactogogue, stimulant. Seeds used to treat stomach ache, flatulence, to relieve digestive process; to stimulate menstrual flow and to increase sexual desire; to treat genitourinary tract; and prostate. Increase production of breast milk after childbirth, and stop internal bleeding.
Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, Vol 6, 2005 405
Medicinal Herbs in Palestine
Aref Abu-Rabia
Cichorium intybus L.: [Family: Compositae]:
Arabic: Hindaba English: Chicory.
Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac, diuretic, sedative, laxative. Leaves are eaten raw in salads for food and to strengthen the body. Treat urinary tract infections and kidney stones. Increase sexual desire.
Coriandrum sativum L.:[Family:Umbelliferae ]
Arabic: Kusbara English: Coriander
Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac, diuretic, stimulant. Used by women after childbirth to strengthen the body and to increase production of breast milk, and to increase sexual desire. Treat urinary infections and prostate problems.
Cyclamen persicum Mill.:[Family: Primulaceae]
Arabic: Sabunit al-Ra’i English: Aleppo cyclamen Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac. The bulbs are used to treat genitourinary tract, sterility of men and women, prostate and cystitis; venereal disease; syphilis.
Ecballium elaterium (L.) Ric [Family: Cucurbitaceae] Arabic: Qitha al-Hamir. English: Squirting cucumber. Uses: diuretic. Treat urine’s retention, piles, swollen testicles and yellow fever.
Eruca sativa Miller. [Family: Cruciferae]
Arabic: Jarjir, Hab al-Rashad. English: Cress.
Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac, stimulant. Fresh plants are eaten as a salad green. Seeds are used to increase sexual desire and to treat impotency.
Eryngium creticum Lam: [Family: Umbelliferae]
Arabic: Kursannih English: Snake root
Properties and Uses: diuretic, emmenagogue. Roots and seeds are immersed in water, and drunk, to treat kidney stones and infections; skin diseases and tumors.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.:[Family: Umbelliferae ]. Arabic: Shawmar English: Fennel
Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac, diuretic, emmenagogue, galactogogue, stimulant. Green leaves as eaten raw as a salad green, and also added to cooked food, or to tea. Used to increase production of breast milk; sexual desire; and to treat kidney infections.
Juniperus communis: [Family: Cupressaceae]
Arabic: ‘Ar’ar, ‘Itran, Qitran English: Commom juniper Properties and Uses: diuretic. Berries of the plant are soaked in water and drunk. The fruit and leaves are used to treat urinary infections ; skin lesions including tumors.
Lavandula stoechas L. [Family: Labiate]
Arabic :Durm English: French lavender, Stoechas. Properties and Uses: it is diuretic, tonic. Leaves are boiled in water and drunk to treat kidney stones, and urine retention.
Malva Spp.:[Family: Malvaceae]
Arabic: Khubaizih, Khubiza English: Mallow
Properties and Uses: expectorant, laxative, astringent. The leaves are cooked as food. It is a laxative and used to treat night blindness. Treat urinary tract diseases and vaginal diseases; skin disease and tumors.
Nigella sativa L.: [Family: Ranunculaceae]
Arabic: Habbit al-Barakah, Habbih Suda, Qazhih),
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English: Nigella, black cumin
Properties and Uses: it is a diuretic, emmenagogue, galactogogue. The seeds are boiled or soaked in water and drunk to treat urinary infection and urine retention. Oil is extracted from the seeds to treat prostate, relieve flatulence, increase production/flow of breast milk; used to delay menses. The extracted oil from the seeds is used to treat and prevent cancer and skin tumors.
Olea europaea L.: [Family: Oleaceae]
Arabic: Zaytun, Zeit English: Olive oil.
Properties and Uses: Olive oil used to treat urinary retention and infection, cancer and prostate problems. Smearing olive oil and a little salt over a baby’s body to strengthen its bones and muscles and prevent diaper rash; to treat venereal diseases and diabetes. Treat kidney stones.
Origanum majorana L.: [Family: Labiatae]
Arabic: Mardaqush English: Sweet or knotted marjoram. Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac; emmenagogue; tonic. Carminative, diuretic, stimulant. Treat kidney stone, genitourinary tract infections, and prostate; skin diseases and tumors. Strengthen the body and act as an appetizer.
Raphanus sativus L.: [Family: Cruciferae] :
Arabic: Fijil English: Radish; common radish
Properties and Uses: Appetite stimulant, aphrodisiac, diuretic, emmenagogu. Increase sexual desire, strengthen the body; to increase lactation; treat syphilis; rheumatism genitourinary tract diseases.
Rhus coriaria L.: [Family: Anacardiaceae]
Arabic: Summag, summaq.English: Sicilian sumach Properties and Uses: as an astringent to stop bleeding. Used to treat venereal diseases; urinary tract inflammations; as spice with olive oil. Treat piles and bloody diarrhea and dysentery.
Rosmarinus officinalis L.:[Family: Labiatae]
Arabic: Hasalban, Iklil al-Jabal English: Rosemary Properties and Uses: antiseptic, diuretic, carminative, stimulate, emmenagogue. Treat gonorrhea, and prostate.
Ruta chalepensis L.:[Family: Rutaceae]
Arabic: Faijan, Fijan, sadhab, shadhab English: Rue Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac, diuretic, sedative, analgesic; venereal diseases; emmenagogue. Treat swollen testicles; syphilis and prostate. Treat skin diseases and tumors.
Salvia fruticosa Mill. [Family: Labiatae ]
Arabic: Marmarya, miramia English: Sage
Properties and Use: Used to treat genitourinary tract infections; stomachache, diarrhea, open wounds, nausea, to regulate menstruation and to ease menstrual pains.
Silybum marianum: [Family: Compositae]
Arabic: Khurfeish al-Jamal English: Milk/St. Mary’s Thistle.
Properties and Uses: galactagogue, nutritious.
Shoots are eaten as a raw salad green; or boiled in water to treat kidney stones and infections, to treat urine retention and kidney stone, cough and bronchitis; congestion of uterus
and varicose veins; and prostate.
Smilax aspera L. [Family: Liliaceae]
Arabic: Medaidet hayih, Sabrin, Fishagh English: Smilax, Rough bindweed, Prickly ivy.
Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac, diuretic, tonic. To treat syphilis; dried roots and leaves are soaked in water and drunk to treat kidney infections and stones.
Taraxacum cyprium: [Family: Compositae]
Arabic: Salatat al-Ruhban English: Taraxacum
Properties and Uses: diuretic, nutritious. Flowers are eaten and leaves are used as a raw salad green to treat urinary infections and retentions; digestive disorders, VD.
Urtica pilulifera L. .:[Family: Urticaceae ]
Arabic: Hurriq, Qurris English: Roman nettle
Properties and Uses: aphrodisiac; diuretic. Fresh young leaves are eaten to treat kidney stone and infections; rheumatism; treat female sterility, bleeding.
Vitex agnus-castus L.:[Family: Verbenaceae]
Arabic: Shajarat Ibrahim, Yarnahin English: Chaste tree Properties and Uses: To treat eye diseases; toothaches; venereal diseases; ease menstrual pains; stomachaches, headaches and sore joints.
Summary
These herbs and foodstuffs commonly in Palestine clearly contain a host of biologically-active compounds. Their physiology effects warrant stress in future research to improve our understanding of human nutritional and medicinal requirements, especially with reference to cancer prevention.
Published at: Sun Dec 22 2024
Edible medicinal plants against COVID-19 in the Middle East
Introduction
COVID-19 is a pandemic respiratory illness caused by a highly infectious form of novel Coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, discovered at the end of 2019. Most of the people infected with the SARS-CoV-2 virus will experience mild to moderate respiratory symptoms and may recover without requiring special treatment.i The elderly and those with pre-existing medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, and cancer are more likely to develop serious illness from SARS-CoV-2.ii The typical symptoms of COVID-19 patients, includes fever, dry cough, shortness of breath, muscle aches, confusion, acute respiratory distress syndrome, as well as the loss of taste and smell. Additionally, these symptoms may be accompanied by fatigue, headache, diarrhea, lymphopenia;iii catarrh, nasal congestion, runny nose, sore throat, and sneezin;iv,v,vi,vii Various claims have been made about the pros and cons of herbal medicines in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19.viii Historically, herbal medicines have been traditionally used to treat cold and flu symptoms, as well as other diseases of the respiratory system. Certain foods and herbs could be used as dietary or supplementary therapy to prevent infection and strengthen immunity.ix The longstanding use of dietary therapy and herbal medicine to prevent and treat diseases cannot be overemphasized, as several herbs do exhibit antiviral activity.x Treating influenza and the common cold with very large amounts of vitamin C has been practiced for decades; therefore, vitamin C may be effective against COVID-19.xi Evidence has also shown that vitamin D may decrease the risk of developing severe symptoms from COVID-19. Thus, by extension, an increased vitamin D intake may reduce the risk of influenza and COVID-19 infections and related deaths.xii Many foods and herbsxiii are also known to display antiviral and immunomodulatory activitiesxiv,xv these immunomodulatory herbs could enhance the immune system and protect the body against COVID- 19. The current literature carries strong evidence in support of dietary therapy and herbal medicine as preventive agents against COVID-19, as well as for strengthening immunity. Aromatherapy and vaporized essential oils of certain herbsxvi have also been used for thousands of years ago as anti-microbial and anti-viral agents in preventing the spread of airborne bacteria and viruses.xvii Many of these vaporized essential oils may provide therapeutic benefits for people suffering from influenza or other respiratory viral infections.xviii Thus, using essential oils could be a good way to prevent COVID-19.
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Allium cepa L.
Family: Liliaceae
Arabic: Basal
English: onion
Plant parts: leaves, bulb. Preparation: Fresh, dried, or cooked.
Chemical constituents: quercetin, glucokinin, pectin, essential oilxix vitamin C, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, and ironxx steroidal saponins and sapogenins, sulfur compounds (alkenyl cesteine sulphoxides), and flavonides (quercetin)xxi,xxii Onions contain S-propenylysteine sulphoxides and S-methylycteine sulphoxides, and are a major source of flavonoids,xxiii vitamin C, gluconin, and sex hormones.xxiv
Properties and Ethno-botanical uses: tonic, cardiac tonic, appetizer, and antiseptic; treat cough and fever. In Jordan, the bulbs, fresh leaves are an appetizer. Onion may be squeezed onto the hands or into the mouth and nose to prevent influenza, colds, and other epidemic diseases. Fresh green onion leaves are eaten as salad or with other foodxxv,xxvi In Eastern Turkey, onions, and garlic are commonly consumed to strengthen the immune system, notably during the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020.
Allium sativum
Family: Liliaceae
Arabic: thoum, thum
English: garlic
Plant parts: leaves and cloves, bulbs.
Preparation: The fresh leaves and cloves, or dried cloves are edible.
Chemical constituents: alliin, essential oil, vitamins A, C, minerals (Karim and Quraan 1986:39; Khalifa 1998:201), phosphorus, sulfur, alliin, allicin, garlic oil. The chief constituent of garlic is the sulfur compound allicin, produced by crushing or chewing fresh
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Edible medicinal plants against COVID-19 in the Middle East
garlic, which in turn produces other sulfur compounds: ajoene, mono- , di-, and tri-allyl sulfides, and vinyldithiins.xxvii
Properties and Ethno-botanical uses Allium sativum is carminative, cholagogue, aphrodisiac, diuretic, and purgative. Garlic can be used in the treatment of toothaches, ear infections and rheumatism; Garlic also has antiseptic, bacteriostatic, and antiviral effects. In Jordan, it used as an anti-hypertensive, treatment for whooping cough and diseases of the circulatory system. Fresh green leaves/bulbs are commonly eaten with salad. It is also used to treat asthma, and joint inflammations. Allium sativum was found to have several antimicrobial compounds, as well as active antitumor elements such allicin and ajoenexxviii,xxix bulbs treat respiratory problems. As noted previously in Eastern Turkey, the consumption of onions, alongside garlic is believed to strengthen the immune system during the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 (Pieroni et al. 2020:5-9). Garlic is also shown to demonstrate antiviral activity against influenza virus.xxx Garlic can also treat respiratory diseases, such as the common cold, the cough, and other symptoms related to influenza;xxxi Garlic can also be used to treat chronic bronchitis and upper respiratory tract infections.xxxii Allicin-containing supplements can be taken as a preventative against the common cold virus, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Althaea officinalis L.
Family: Malvaceae
Arabic: khitmiya, khutmiya, Khutmiy English: Marshmallow, White mallow Plant parts: leaves, roots, flowers, seeds.
Preparation: The leaves can be eaten raw as salad, or soaked in water and eaten as a dish. The leaves and roots can also be boiled in water drank.
Chemical constituents: mucilage, starch, pectin, sugars, and asparagine, Vitamin C, tannin, and alum. Mucilage, flavonoids, phenolic acids, starch.
Properties and ethno-botanical use: Althaea officinalis is used as a calmative for cough, the crushed roots are boiled in water/ milk to treat fever, respiratory illnesses, coughing, throat infections, bronchitis, mucus secretions, asthma and spasmodic episodes. White Mallow can be made into an infusion for treatment of bronchial and throat catarrhs, and chronic coughs.xxxiii White Mallow is also an analgesic and anti-inflammatory. In Eastern Turkey, the use of Althaea spp. was recorded in cases of possible COVID-19 symptoms (shortness of breath and cough). White Mallow is also used as adjuvant in the treatment of early/mild cases of COVID-19. It is most useful in treating respiratory disease symptoms: dry, and irritable coughs, and irritations of oral and pharyngeal mucosa.xxxiv
Artemisia annua
Family: Compositae (Asteraceae)
Arabic: shih hawli
English: annual wormwood/sweet wormwood/mug wort Plant parts: Dried aerial parts, dried leaves, stalks.
Chemical constituents: arteannuin, peroxide group, misiaketone, cadinene, caryophyllene, chryososplenol, scopolin, scopoletin, ginghao acid, artemisinin, chloroquine,xxxv essential oils, flavonoids and coumarins; the main chemical constituents are sesquiterpenoids, including artemisinin.xxxvi
Properties and ethno-botanical uses: Artemisia annua is an antipyretic,xxxvii antibacterial and anti-inflammatory traditionally used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases and malaria. It is still used in Asia and Africa to treat malariaxxxviii as well as COVID-19 symptoms.
Copyright: 152 ©2021 Rabia
Artemesia herba-alba Asso Family: Compositae Arabic: Shih, sheeh English: Wormwood
Plant parts: Leaves, flowers.
Chemical constituents: essential oil, resin, pinene, cadinen, tannin; Santonin, sterols and thujones; it also contains essential oils, sesquiterpene lactones and thymol; the leaves and stems contain three non-glycosidic flavonoids, volatile components (monoterpene, Verbenol) (Bnouham 2012: 1-9). Properties and Ethno-botanical uses: Artemisa herba is a tonic, used to treat cough and colic (maghs). In Egypt and North Africa, an infusion of the flowering branches are tonic, carminative for the stomach, and used a cure for nervous troubles and ‘calming the emotions’. In Jordan, it is used to treat inflammation, and asthma, the common cold, kidney stones and the cough.
In Jordan and Palestine, Artemisia herba is used to treat the cold, coughing (also the chronic cough), sore throat, lung infections, fever, influenza, loss of appetite, malaria, and as a treatment for COVID-19 symptoms.xxxix
Citrus limon L.
Family: Rutaceae
Arabic: laimun, laymun, hamid, laymon hulu English: Lime, common lemon, Lemon Plant parts: fruit, leaves and flowers. Preparation: drink with water or tea.
Chemical constituents: Essential oil, vitamin C, hesperidin (Karim and Qura’an 1986:40); magnesium and phosphorus; limonoids, citronellal, volatile oil, citro-flavonoids, and citric acid, B6, riboflavine, calcium, iron, and potassium.
Properties and ethno-botanical uses: Citrus limon has anti- emetic, appetizer, and anti-nausea properties, and is used in the treatment of malaria, and fever, it is also used in the treatment of colds.
During the 2020 Covid-19 pandemic in Milan, Italy, an increase in the consumption of some specific fresh fruits-especially, citrus fruits- was observed; it seems that this was one of many changes in food consumption habits adopted to treat COVID-19.
Citrus limon is also used to relieve cough and as expectorant for bronchitis, and as anti-inflammatory. It is also used to relieve respiratory symptoms, such as coughing and the sore throat, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Commiphora myrrha (Nees)
Family: Burseraceae
Arabic: mur, myrrh, subr, Mur batarikh. English: Myrrh
Plant parts: resin.
Chemical constituents: the oleo-gum-resin contain volatile oil, resin, and gum. The constituents of Myrrh’s volatile oil include terpenes, sesquiterpenes, esters, cumic aldehyde and eugenol. The sesquiterpene fraction contains furanosesquiterpenes: furanogermacranes, furanoguaianes and furanoeudesmanes. The gum contains protein, and carbohydrates of galactose, arabinose and glucuronic acid units. Sandaracopimaric acid, abietic acid, dehydroabietic acid.xl
Citation: Rabia AA. Edible medicinal plants against COVID-19 in the Middle East. Int J Complement Alt Med. 2021;14(3):151‒156. DOI: 10.15406/ijcam.2021.14.00550
Edible medicinal plants against COVID-19 in the Middle East
Properties and ethno-botanical use: Myrrh is used in the treat asthma, coughing, wounds, and hemorrhoids. In Yemen, the resin is burnt and the smoke allowed to rise between the legs of women post- childbirth to assist with the expulsion of the placenta and stimulate bloodflow (Ghazanfar 1994: 65). It has also been used to treat chest pains.xli Myrrh is an exudate from the bark of the plant, which has therapeutic properties supporting its medicinal use (Singh 2015: 50- 55xlii), its essential oil provides antiviral activity against influenza, and herpes.). The extract of Myrrh is believed to treat respiratory diseases like chest infections, and there is a possibility that Myrrh could be effective in treating the current cases of COVID-19.xliii It is used in the alleviation of respiratory symptoms such as the inflammation of pharyngeal mucosa; as well as an adjuvant in the treatment of early/ mild cases of COVID-19 (Silveira et al. 2020: 8, 30).
Eucalyptus globules
Family: Myrtaceae
Arabic: Kina, Kineih, Kafour English: Eucalyptus, Blue gum tree Part used: Leaves.
Active constituents: Cineol (eucalyptol) pinene, essential oil, resin and tannin.
Properties and ethno-botanical use: The essential oil of Eucalyptus globules is oestrogenic, antiseptic, expectorant, and an anti-inflammatory treatment for the upper respiratory tract and for skin diseases. It is also used in the treatment of dysentery, malaria, cough, stomach aches, diarrhea, nausea, fever, flu and the common cold. The use of Eucalyptus has been recorded in possible cases of COVID-19 (for symptoms including shortness of breath and cough) Eucalyptus globules is also used as an adjuvant in the treatment of early/mild cases of COVID-19. It is an effective treatment for the following respiratory disease symptoms: dry coughs, throat irritation, and irritations of oral and pharyngeal mucosa.xliv
Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
Family: Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Arabic: ‘irq al-sus, ‘ud al-sus
English: Liquorice, licorice
Plant parts: root, leaves, rhizome, gum.
Active constituents: Glycyrrhizin asparagine, liquirtin, coumarin, sugar, tannin, glycyrrhizin and glycyrrhetic acid. Glycyrrhiza glabra is a source of licorice, the sweet taste is due to glycyrrhizin (the calcium and potassium salts of glycyrrhizinic acid); flavonoids, starch, protein and bitter principles. The plant also contains protein, sulphur, calcium oxalates, and resin. Glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhetinic acid, flavonoids (liquiritin, isoliquiritin).
Properties and ethno-botanical use: Glycyrrhiza glabra is used as an expectorant, and antitussive. It is also used in the treatment of peptic ulcers, hypertension, as an anti-inflammatory, diuretic, and is useful for the treatment of peptic ulcers. In Palestine, Glycyrrhiza glabra is used to treat coughs, lung infections, throat infections, infections of the urinary system, a sedative nervous system, and in the treatmen of fevers, and asthma. In Yemen, the plant is used to increase sexual potency. The root is used in the treatment of ulcers and painful coughs. The Glycyrrhiza glabra root also demonstrates antiviral activity against influenza.xlv It is used in the treatment of the respiratory disease symptoms of coughing, sore throat and asthma. It is also an adjuvant in the treatment of early/mild cases of COVID-19.
Malva sylvestris L.
Family: Malvaceae
Arabic: khubiza, khubaiz, khubizah
Copyright: 153 ©2021 Rabia
English: common mallow, blue mallow
Plant parts: leaves, shoots, seeds and flowers.
Chemical constituents: malvine, tannin, mucilage sterols, terpenes, anthocyanins, beta-carotene, malvidin, leucuyanidins, mucilage.
Properties and Ethno-botanical use: Malva sylvestris is calmative, laxative and an emollient. It is used in the treatment of abscesses, aphthas, asthma, inflammations of the mouth, constipation, teeth ailments, bleeding, the nerves, throat infections, coughing, and eye inflammations. The leaves are used as a laxative, antitussive and emollient for the intestinal mucosa, as well as a treatment for urinary tract diseases, vaginal infections, and provides relief from skin irritation. It is also used in the treatment of colds, and cough.xlvi In Spain, a decoction of the roots are used orally for fever and to calm cough.
It is used in the treatment of respiratory diseases for pharyngeal irritation and dry coughs.xlvii and may be useful in the relief of COVID-19 symptoms by exerting a soothing effect on the respiratory tract (Silveira et al. 2020: 13-14).
Nigella sativa L.
Family: Ranunculaceae
Arabic: habbit al-barakah/ haba sawda, qazha
English: Nigella, black cumin
Plant parts: seeds or extracted oil.
Chemical constituents: Essential oil, fixed oil, nigellin, saponin, nigellimine N-oxide, and isoquinoline alkaloid.xlviii
Properties and ethno-botanical uses: Nigella sativa is used as a digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, galactagogue, and carminative. The seed is used to relieve flatulence, increase milk secretion, treat arthritis, general weakness, the common cold, and gynecological disorders. According to the Prophet Muhammad, it can treat warts, asthma and moles.xlix It also used as a liver tonic, a digestive, an anti- inflammatory, immuno-stimulant, and remedy for jaundice. It can be used for the relief of a severe cough and for asthma in the context of COVID-19.
Ocimum gratissimum L.
Arabic: raihan
Family: Lamiaceae
English: clove basil
Plant parts: leaves, seeds, roots, entire plant, whole plant.
Properties and ethno-botanical use: In West Africa, the leaves of Ocimum gratissimu are used for fever, dysentery, cough, headaches, snake bite, rheumatism and lumbag.l
In India the plant is used to treat paralysis, neuralgia, rheumatism, gonorrhea, and headache.li
In West Indies, fresh leaves in tea are used to treat the flu, fever, pneumonia, and dysmenorrhea. It is bactericidal and anthelmintic.lii
It can also be used to treat symptoms of cold, influenza, fever, asthma, and bronchitis.liii Its antitussive properties may allow for its potential use in the relief of early symptoms of COVID-19.liv
Pimpinella anisum L./Anisum vulgare L. Family: Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)
Arabic: yansun, anisun
English: Anise, aniseed
Citation: Rabia AA. Edible medicinal plants against COVID-19 in the Middle East. Int J Complement Alt Med. 2021;14(3):151‒156. DOI: 10.15406/ijcam.2021.14.00550
Edible medicinal plants against COVID-19 in the Middle East
Plant parts: Seeds and flowers.
Chemical constituents: essential oil, anethol, fixed oil, choline, mucilage, limonene, and rosin (Karim and Qura’an 1986:39; Khalifa 1998:601). Flavonoids isolated from anise include quercetin 3-glucuronide, rutin, luteolin 7-glucoside, isoorientin, isovitexin, apigenin 7-glucoside and a luteolin glycoside.lv,lvi Anise also contains aflatoxin, mycotoxin, acetaldehyde, alpha-pinene, alpha-terpineol, squalene, stigmasterol, trans-anethole, and zinc.lvii,lviii,lix
Properties and ethno-botanical uses: Pimpinella anisum has anti-spasmodic, aromatic, bronchodilator, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, properies, and can be used as a flavoring agent. Its diuretic properties make it an effective treatment for urinary tract infections and urine retention. The fruits are used to treat the common cold, and general weakness. In Palestine, the plant is used to treat stomach and intestinal pain, headaches, to increase fertility, and symptoms associated with the common cold and respiratory illnesses. The main constituent of the essential oil of anise is anethol, is an active estrogenic agent, and has been shown to block inflammations due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.lx The plant is also used the treatment of fevers and coughs, and thus, might be effective in the relief of the early symptoms of COVID-19 (Silveira et al. 2020:15-16).
Sambucus nigra L.
Family: Caprifoliaceae/Adoxaceae
Arabic: bailassan, khamman, khaman kabir, sabuqah English: black elder
Plant parts: berry, flower, bark, fruit, leaves.
Chemical constituents: Sambucin, sambunigrine, resin, tannin, tyrosin, essential oil; vitamin A and C; Iron, phosphorus and potassium, mucilage, flavonoids, anthocyanique. Anthocyanins (sambucin, sambucyanin), flavonoids, essential oil, ascorbic acid, phenolic acids, triterpenes (Bone 2007: 32).
Properties and ethno-botanical use: Sambucus nigra is a depurative, laxative, diuretic, calmative, and sedative, commonly used in the treatment of rheumatism, nervous system disorders, the common cold and inflammations of the respiratory system. Sambucus nigra is also used for treating coughing and flu, fever, and headaches. It can be used as an adjuvant in the treatment of early/mild cases of COVID-19.
Thymus vulgaris L.
Family: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
Arabic: za’atar
English: Thyme
Plant parts: leaves, flower, the whole herb.
Chemical constituents: volatile oil contains phenols, including thymol, carvacrol, glycoside, and flavonoids, tannin, resin and saponoside. Its essential oil mainly includes phenols (such as thymol, carvacrol), carnosic acid, biphenyls, flavonoids, phenolic acids, acetophenone glycosides.
Properties and ethno-botanical uses: Thymus vulgaris has aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, and carminative properties. It is used in afterbirth, care, as a treatment for disorders of the digestive and respiratory systems, ulcerous migraines, whooping cough, asthma, and colic. It is one of the most commonly used spices in the Arab kitchen.
In Jordan, the shoots of the plants are used to treat hypertension, the common cold, abdominal pain, and as a blood purifier. Thymus
Copyright: 154 ©2021 Rabia
vulgaris is also used to treat coughing associated with cold, laryngitis and tonsillitis.lxi Because of its spasmolytic and anti-inflammatory properties, it may be useful for relieving the respiratory symptoms, associated with COVID-19.
Zingiber officinalis
Family: Zingiberaceae
Arabic: Zingibil, Zenjabil English: ginger, East Indian ginger Plant parts: rhizome.
Chemical constituents: the rhizome contains volatile oil and resin, starch and mucilage. The oil contains cineole, citral, borneol and sesquiterpenes (zingiberene and bisabolene); the rhizome contains gingerol, phenols, and zingerone. Phenolic volatile oils (gingerol analogues: gingerols, shogaol), gum, resin, volatile oil, resin oil, gingerin, calcium, vitamins A and B, zingerone, shogaols, gingerols, paradols, wikstromol, and carinol.lxii
Properties and ethno-botanical uses: Zingiber officinalis is a stimulant, analgesic and aphrodisiac. It is used to treat postpartum mothers by stimulating blood circulation and preventing clotting.
In Jordan, the rhizomes are used in treating anemia, the common cold, and for general weakness. It can also be used to treat a sore throat, infections of the lungs, eye inflammations, hoarseness and flatulence.
In North Africa, its powdered rhizome is an ingredient in a popular drug imported from Southeast Asia, for its stimulant and aphrodisiac properties. In Lebanon, postpartum mothers are given a drink consisting of ginger boiled with cinnamon and other hot spices to stimulate circulation and prevent blood clotting. Ginger is has also been shown to demonstrate antiviral activity against the influenza virus. In the context of the Covid-19 pandemic, its use as a treatment in anti-inflammatory therapy for upper respiratory affections as well as its uses in treating the common cold, coughing, and asthma may prove effective in dealing with some of the disease’s respiratory symptoms.
Conclusions
Most of the institutionalized health services have struggled to combat the COVID-19 pandemic in its early stages. Although there are now several pharmaceutical companies with approved vaccines for this disease (and still more in development) unfortunately the cost of these vaccines prohibits many countries from carrying out vaccination campaigns among their populations. At the same time, there are numerous of medicinal plants, fruits and vegetable products that may very likely prove as effective adjuvants in preventing and treating the symptoms of COVID-19.
Furthermore Consuming healthy food produced from plants, fruits and vegetables, could enhance the immune system and protect the body against COVID- 19, as well as other viruses and diseases, and more broadly improve the general wellbeing of people. Thus, dietary therapy and medicinal plants should not be ruled out as a complementary preventive therapy, especially among at-risk populations with limited vaccine access during the COVID-19 pandemic. Far from being a pseudoscience, these therapies could exist side by side with modern/western medicine, and even enhance the effectiveness of western medical procedures. These edible medicinal plants contain a host of biologically-active compounds. Their physiological effects requires more research in future to improve our understanding of human nutritional and medicinal requirements, especially with reference to flu symptoms, diseases of the respiratory system, as well as COVID-19.
Published at: Fri Dec 20 2024
